WAR BREAKS OUT
What Caused the First World War?
Discover: Explore the map to see what Europe looked like in 1914.
Map Data: Kropelnicki, Jeffrey; Johnson, Grace; Kne, Len; Lindberg, Mark. (2022). Historical National Boundaries. Retrieved from the Data Repository for the University of Minnesota, https://doi.org/10.13020/146x-1412.
A map of Europe in 1914 would look very different from a map of Europe today. Eastern Europe, especially, was divided amongst a series of empires: the German empire, the Austro-Hungarian empire and the Ottoman empire. These empires, along with Western European countries, were in constant competition with one another. Indeed, decades of imperial rivalries, economic competition, nationalism, and instability all led to a very fragile and unstable peace in Europe at the turn of the 20th century.
We can refer to the following as the MAIN causes of WWI: Militarism, Alliances, Imperialism and Nationalism.
MAIN Causes of the First World War
Militarism
During the 19th century and leading up to the First World War, European countries spent considerable resources maintaining an army even in times of peace. Each country had to make sure they would be ready as quickly as possible in case they were attacked. However, the extent to which they prepared for an eventual conflict varied widely.
The largest armies were in Europe, where most of the fighting took place. Comparing the number of soldiers enlisted to the total population, France had the largest army per capita at the time with 11% of its population enrolled. The Russian Empire had the largest army in absolute numbers, but this massive army only represented 0.4% of its population. In comparison, Canada’s army at the time was very small: only a couple of ships and approximately 3 110 soldiers for a population of less than 8 million people.
Amassing such large armies did little to preserve the peace and left nations wary of their neighbours.
Alliances
Throughout the 19th and early 20th century, various European countries formalized economic and political agreements with one another. These agreements had many benefits for the countries involved. Military alliances specifically allowed for additional protection and support to countries faced with threats. However, countries sometimes agreed to terms of the alliances in secret, or without consulting the other countries that they already had agreements with.
This led to a complex system of alliances throughout Europe. In general, two main alliances emerged at the start of the war: The Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy, and the Triple Entente, formed by Britain, France, and Russia. In addition to these nations, many other smaller countries gravitated towards them: Serbia, Romania and Greece, among them. If any one country found themselves at war, the others in their alliance would likely follow suit.
Imperialism
Many European empires lost their colonies in the Americas during the 1700s and 1800s, yet the Middle East, Africa and Asia were still sought after territories. By the 19th century, large portions of Africa had been taken over by France, Great-Britain, Belgium and Germany. In Asia, many great ancient empires had fallen, conquered by European powers: the Qing Dynasty in China, the Sikh Empire in India, the Nguyễn dynasty in Vietnam, and many others. Finally, in the Middle East, the Ottoman Empire controlled most of the access points to the territories in the east – directly controlling the access to Asia.
Conquering these new territories was not enough for the European empires, however. Territorial expansion was a means of showing their might and filling their coffers, and they always wanted more. The Ottoman Empire was slowly collapsing at the time and European nations eyed their territories, hoping to position themselves as the strongest powers in the world, at the cost of African, Asian and Middle Eastern nations.
Nationalism
European militarism and imperialism were often fueled by nationalism, a belief in one’s superiority and natural right to wealth, territory and power. However, having an empire usually means subsuming smaller nations into the larger empire and controlling their interests, which leads to another form of nationalism: the desire for self-determination, to have control of your own nation.
Bosnia, for example, was not a nation of its own in 1914, but rather was part of the Austro-Hungarian empire. On June 28, 1914, in Sarajevo, Bosnia, a Serbian nationalist, who wanted to create a unified South Slavic state and liberate Serbians living under Austro-Hungarian rule, assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand, who was to become the future King of Austria-Hungary. The assassin was part of an extremist group that wanted Serbian power in the Balkans and intended to break up the Austro-Hungarian Empire. In return, Austria-Hungary believed the Serbian government was involved in the murder and declared war. This was the spark that ultimately ignited the war.
How did Canada get involved?
When the Austro-Hungarian Empire declared war on Serbia, many countries were bound by treaties and thus obligated to join the conflict. Russia, allied to Serbia, declared war on the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Germany, allied with the Austro-Hungarians, then stepped in and demanded a promise of peace from Russia and its ally, France. When the Germans received no reply, they declared war on Russia on August 1, 1914, and on France on August 3, 1914.
On its way to France, the German army invaded Belgium on August 3rd, 1914. Britain, an ally of France and supporter of Belgian neutrality, demanded that the Germans withdraw from Belgium and that Germany observe the Treaty of 1839 which declared Belgium a neutral country. Despite the ultimatum from the British, the Germans continued their invasion and Britain declared war on Germany on August 4th.
Many European countries were major colonial powers at the time. Their involvement in the conflict therefore meant that their colonies were automatically at war as well. As a result, the First World War involved people from all over the world. Although the fighting mainly took place in Europe, Africa and the Middle-East also saw their own theatres of war.
Canada was a self-governing Dominion of the British Empire, but did not fully determine or control its own foreign affairs. Therefore, Canada was obliged to enter the War alongside Britain, which asked Canada to deploy 25,000 soldiers. The Canadian Government thought that the might of the British Empire would make for a short-fought war with Germany. Little did they know it would last four long years and enlist 619 636 Canadians, almost 13% of Canada’s population of 8 million.
Enlistment
When war broke out, Canadians rushed to enlist in large numbers. Many chose to enlist out of feelings of patriotism and the desire to fight a just war against German aggression. Some also wished to enlist for adventure and travel. Newspapers, posters, clergymen and politicians encouraged men to enlist as a duty to King and Country.
Early in the war, volunteers overwhelmed Canadian recruiting offices. Recruiters followed government-mandated medical requirements and turned away numerous men whom they deemed “unfit” or “undesirable” whether due to their age, height, medical history or even the colour of their skin. While there was no government policy on the ethnicity of volunteers, many recruiters ascribed to the belief that this was a “white man’s war” and turned away Asian, Indigenous and Black Canadians. This decision was, however, frequently left to the discretion of the recruiting officer and some recruiting officers accepted all eligible fighters, including Indigenous, Black and Asian Canadians, amongst their ranks. As the war progressed and the troops overseas faced heavy losses, Canada needed more soldiers and loosened its restrictions on recruitment.
Did you know?
The youngest recorded age of a Canadian soldier that enlisted in the CEF was 11. The oldest was 78. In both cases, they lied about their age.
Discover: For some, enlistment was a simple process. Others went to great lengths to enlist, showing a powerful determination to fight for what they felt was right. Explore the stories below to learn more
Jeremiah Jones was born in 1858 in Nova Scotia. When he enlisted in the Nova Scotia Rifles in 1916, that meant he was 58 years old – 13 years over the age limit defined by the CEF. He lied about his age, saying that he was only 39, in order to enrol. The Nova Scotia Rifles was also one of the few combat units that accepted black soldiers, despite protests from white volunteers. Jones went on to fight at Vimy Ridge, where he heroically faced a German machine gun alone, killing or capturing every member of the enemy unit to secure safe passage for his own unit. One of his officers recommended him for a Distinguished Conduct Medal, but the request went unanswered until 2010, 60 years after his death, when his descendants were finally awarded the recognition he deserved.
Image: Personal collection of the Jones family, via Wikimedia Commons.
Nuinosuke Joseph Okawa was born on July 24, 1884 in Shizuoka, Japan and arrived in Canada in 1907 at the age of 23. He worked as a carpenter in Vernon, British Columbia. At the outbreak of the First World War, he wanted to enlist in the army to fight alongside other Canadians. Anti-Asian racism, however, was rampant in British Columbia so Okawa had to travel all the way to Alberta to join the army. He enlisted in Calgary on August 7, 1916. Okawa fought at Vimy Ridge and survived, but was badly injured four months later at Lens and was sent back to Canada after a long stint in the hospital. Despite his military service in WWI, Okawa, like other Japanese Canadians, was interned during WWII.
Click here to learn more.
Image: Nuinosuke Joseph Okawa, right, with other Japanese-Canadian soldiers (George Takahashi).
Abdul Hamed was born in 1899 in Calcutta, India and was part of a small community of Muslim Canadians living in Ontario at the outbreak of WWI. We know very little about his life, but one thing we do know for sure is that he wanted to serve Canada in WWI, when he was only 19 years of age. However, Hamed was turned away and deemed medically unfit to serve. The reason? At 4’11”, he did not meet the minimum height requirements and was therefore too short to fight.
Image: Hamed’s attestation paper (Library and Archives Canada).
Henri Chassé was born in 1885 in Quebec, QC. A journalist by trade, he showed an early interest in all things military and joined a local militia in 1902, when he was only 17 years old. When WWI began, Chassé was one of the voices advocating for the formation of a francophone battalion and encouraged many to enlist in the ‘22e bataillon’ once it was formed. Chassé himself was so proud to enlist in the francophone battalion that, as remarked upon by the medical examiner who completed his enlistment papers, he had already tattooed the regimental badge, a beaver, and motto, Je me souviens, on his chest. Chassé trained with his unit in Nova Scotia before heading overseas in March 1915. Throughout WWI, Chassé demonstrated skill, dedication and valour, rising through the ranks to command his company and, after the end of the war in 1918, the battalion. He was awarded the Military Cross for bravery in leading his company at Hill 70 in 1917 and the Distinguished Service Medal for leadership in 1919. The Royal 22e Régiment was confirmed as a permanent regiment in 1920 and Chassé was its first commander. He left the regiment in 1924 and died 4 years later, at 42, of inflammatory rheumatism, an illness he had contracted in the trenches in Flanders.
Image: Musée Royal 22e Régiment
William Semia Oombash was born in 1897 on the Cat Lake reserve in Northern Ontario and worked as a trapper for the Hudson’s Bay Company. His family took part in the signing of Treaty 9 and, like many Indigenous people, he may have enlisted in part to honour this relationship with the British Crown. There were no recruitment offices nearby and Semia Oombash walked the 400 kilometers that separated the Cat Lake reserve from Port Arthur (now Thunder Bay) to enlist in 1916. When he arrived, he spoke neither English nor French, only Anishinaabemowin, and another First Nations recruit had to interpret for him. He learned English from other Anishinaabe volunteers and later was even responsible for running drills for his platoon. He served overseas and fought in the battle of Passchendaele, where he was seriously wounded. He returned home after the war and continued working for the Hudson’s Bay Company. He was chief of the Mishkeegogamang First Nation from 1938 until his death in 1941.
Image: William Semia Oombash, right, with other Indigenous soldiers (Library and Archives Canada).
Regimental Case Studies
When war broke out, many Montrealers wanted to do their part to fight the enemy and answered the call to arms with enthusiasm. To coordinate the city’s war effort, the Royal Montreal Regiment was created in early August 1914. At that time it was called the “1st Regiment, Royal Montreal Regiment” and it was formed by combining three existing prominent militia regiments in Montreal: The 1st Regiment, Canadian Grenadier Guards (372 men and 12 officers); The 3rd Regiment, Victoria Rifles of Canada (355 men and 12 officers), and the 65th Regiment, Carabiniers Mont-Royal (276 men and 8 officers).
Shortly thereafter, the Minister of Militia created the Canadian Expeditionary Force (CEF) so that all of the 424 000 Canadians that went to France and Belgium between 1914 and 1918 were part of the same centrally organized force. Within this military organization, The Royal Montreal Regiment was known as the 14th Battalion (RMR) CEF.
Composed of both English and French speaking men, the RMR “illustrated more than any other battalion in the 1st Canadian Division the spirit of unity between those two great races.”
French Canadians had been in North America for several generations and did not feel any particular loyalty or proximity to Europe, the land of their distant ancestors. On the contrary, many English-speaking Canadians were the first or second generation of their family in the country and felt affected personally by the conflict. Nevertheless, it was clear to both groups that the conflict was global in nature. Criticisms regarding the low level of participation of Francophones in the war effort were upsetting. Wanting to prove their patriotism, a Francophone delegation was formed and they officially requested the creation of a French-Canadian battalion in front of the Canadian Prime Minister Robert Borden on September 28, 1914, in Ottawa.
Arthur Mignault, a doctor who had made his fortune in the pharmaceutical industry and who was Major Surgeon of the Mont-Royal Carabinieri Militia, ancestor of the Fusiliers Mont-Royal de Montréal, offered $50,000 of his personal fortune to create and equip a French-speaking Battalion. He wanted a Battalion that could bring together French Canadians across the country and even Franco-Americans residing in the United States. In 1914, $50,000 was a colossal sum!
These initiatives were publicized by the newspaper La Presse, whose managing editor, Lorenzo Prince, supported the cause. La Presse called for the formation of a French-speaking unit from the beginning of the war and the paper remained a valuable recruitment tool. A crowd of about 20 000 people gathered to hear the speeches of the French-Canadian delegation in favour of the creation of a French-speaking military unit.
Faced with such a strong movement, Borden agreed to the creation of a French-speaking infantry battalion. On October 21, 1914, it was created as the Royal French Canadian Regiment. Since the battalions that were integrated into the Canadian Expeditionary Force were numbered, the Regiment was given the number 22. And thus the 22nd French-Canadian Battalion was born!
